c 


May 


WHOLE  No.  118 


CIRCULAR  No.  60 


BULLETIN  of 

THE  UNIVERSITY  0/ 

MONTANA 


Syllabus  of  Proposed  Course  in 

Botany  for  Secondary  Schools 

in  Montana 


By  J.  E.  KIRKWOOD,  Ph.  D. 

Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Montana 


MISSOULA,  SEPTEMBER,  1915 


Lnterccf  at  Missoula,  Montana,  as  second  class  matter  under  act  of 
Congress.  August  24.  1912. 


Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Montana 

Whole  No.  118,  Circular  No.  (&  ~ 


Syllabus  of  Proposed  Course 

in  Botany  for  Secondary 

Schools  in  Montana 


By  J.  E.  KIRKWOOD,  Ph.  D. 

Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Montana 


Department  of  Botany,  University  of  Montana 
Missoula,    Montana,  1915 


BOTANY 

Proposed  Outline  for  a  Standard  Course  of  Study. 


The  course  of  study  outlined  below  is  suggested  for  one 
semester's  work  in  high  schools.  With  increase  in  some  or  in 
all  of  its  sections  it  may  be  extended  to  cover  a  year,  and  this 
by  all  means  should  be  done  wherever  practicable.  It  is  based 
largely  upon  the  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools  of  the  New 
York  State  Education  Department,  and  is  offered  in  response 
to  inquiries  which  have  come  repeatedly  to  the  University  and 
to  members  of  the  faculty  as  to  the  most  desirable  and  prac- 
tical course  of  study  which  could  be  offered  in  secondary 
schools  in  Montana.  Inquiry  on  the  part  of  the  faculty  mem- 
bers interested  has  revealed  the  fact  that  there  is  at  present  no 
uniformity  in  the  teaching  of  botany  in  the  high  schools  of  this 
state,  and  no  standard  course  is  at  present  recognized.  The 
need  of  more  or  less  local  modification  of  the  courses  to  meet 
what  may  be  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  community  is  recognized, 
but  such  is  quite  possible  within  the  scope  of  the  present  out- 
line, and  yet  will  leave  time  to  acquaint  the  student  with  some 
of  the  representatives  of  the  larger  natural  groups  of  plant 
life.  The  nature  of  the  plant  should  be  revealed  by  care- 
ful attention  to  the  physiological  part  of  the  outline,  and  this 
part  should  be  regarded  as  fundamental  and  necessary  to  an 
intelligent  study  of  either  pure  or  applied  botany  in  any  of  its 
forms.  Where  time  will  permit,  attention  may  well  be  given 
to  a  fuller  study  of  the  principal  families  and  genera  of  the 
flowering  plants.  The  outline  submitted  herewith  is  a  tenta- 
tive one,  and  may  be  modified  later  in  the  light  of  criticisms. 
Therefore  criticisms  are  invited,  both  on  the  content  of  the 
course  and  the  method  of  treatment. 

In  following  any  course  of  scientific  study  a  careful  note- 
book should  be  kept.  In  biological  work  a  loose-leaf  book,  tak- 
ing drawing  and  note  paper  of  about  8%  by  10%  inches,  should 
be  used.  The  notes  should  contain  concise  and  accurate  de- 
scriptions of  the  plants  and  their  parts,  and  of  the  experi- 
ments. Drawings  should  be  made  with  a  hard  pencil  (5H  or 
6H)  and  should  be  accurate  line  drawings  in  which  all  details 
should  be  made  as  clear  as  possible,  with  little  attention  to 
shading  except  where  it  will  serve  to  bring  out  the  form  of  the 
object  and  render  its  interpretation  more  clear.  Habit  sketches 
showing  general  form  and  branching  of  the  plant  are  desir- 
able, and  more  detailed  drawings  of  critical  parts  on  a  some- 
what larger  scale.  All  parts  should  be  carefully  and  neatly 
labeled  in  small  letters.    All  notes  should  be  written  in  ink. 

The  plants  suggested  are  mostly  those  easily  obtained. 
Supplies  in  almost  any  subject  may  be  obtained  from  dealers, 
some  of  whom  are  mentioned  elsewhere.     So  far  as  its  limited 

—2— 


facilities  will  allow  the  Department  of  Botany  at  the  Univer- 
sity is  ready  to  assist  teachers  in  obtaining  material,  and  will 
undertake  to  identify  plants  for  them. 

The  order  of  subjects  presented  in  this  outline  is  thought  to 
be  the  most  satisfactory,  as  it  presents  first  the  nature  of  the 
plant  as  an  organism,  and  second  the  general  outlines  of  classi- 
fication. In  the  first  part  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  two 
ideas,  viz :  nutrition  and  reproduction  as  most  fundamental  and 
far  reaching.  In  the  second  part,  that  of  classification,  the 
idea  of  relationship  between  groups,  families,  genera,  and  to 
some  extent  species,  should  be  impressed.  No  study  of  evolu- 
tion as  such  should  be  attempted  at  this  time,  but  the  idea  of 
relationship  in  a  natural  system  is  a  stimulating  one,  and  with- 
out it  the  work  of  classification  is  devoid  of  an  adequate  pur- 
pose and  becomes  at  once  dry  and  unprofitable.  The  subject 
of  Genetics  is  growing  in  importance  at  the  present  time  and 
the  student  should  be  led  to  see  the  essential  identity  of  the 
process  which  on  the  one  hand  leads  to  kinship  among  plants 
in  nature,  and  on  the  other  to  the  origin  of  new  races  under 
cultivation. 

Any  standard  high  school  text  in  botany  may  be  used  in 
connection  with  this  outline.  The  sequence  of  subjects  as  here- 
in proposed  is  a  logical  one,  but  may  be  modified  to  conform 
to  any  text.  A  text  suggested  is  Practical  Botany  by  Bergen 
and  Caldwell,  Ginn  &  Co.,  545  pp.  illustrated,  $1.30,  or  Botany 
for  Schools,  by  Atkinson,  544  pp,  illustrated,  Henrv  Holt  & 
Co.,  $1.25. 


ELEMENTARY  BOTANY 

I.     PRELIMINARY  EXPERIMENTS  IN  CHEMISTRY 
AND  PHYSICS 

It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  truth  that  chemical  or  phys- 
ical action,  or  both,  are  attendant  upon,  if  not  actually  the 
cause  of,  every  form  of  activity  of  plant  and  animal  life.  A 
proper  understanding  of  the  simpler  manifestations  of  the 
growth  and  behavior  of  plants  is  therefore  possible  only  as 
some  of  the  common  actions  and  reactions  of  physical  forces  is 
comprehended.  A  few  chemical  elements  enter  conspicuously 
into  the  composition  of  living  matter  and  reserve  foods.  The 
sources  of  these  elements  are  the  water,  the  soil  and  the  air. 
The  mode  of  their  absorption,  assimilation  and  elimination  is  an 
expression  of  one  or  another  of  various  physical  and  chemical 
operations,  some  of  which  should  be  illustrated  in  the  labora- 
tory by  a  few  simple  experiments.    See  manuals. 

1.  Observation  of  the  characteristics  of  a  few  of  the  more  com- 
mon chemical  elements;  carbon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  iron,  potassium, 
calcium,  magnesium.  The  sources  of  these  elements  as  acquired  by 
plants. 

2.  The  composition  of  the  air;  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon  dioxide, 
their  proportions  in  the  air  and  their  properties. 

3.  Oxidation  and  the  formation  of  compounds;  carbon  dioxide, 
iron  oxide,  etc. 

4.  Tests  for  acid,  alkaline  and  neutral  substances.     Optional. 

5.  Tests  for  starch.  Blue  color  upon  application  of  iodine.  Use 
pure  iodine  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  potassium  iodide. 

6.  Test  for  sugar.  Fehling's  Solution,  a  clear  deep  blue  liquid, 
is  variously  affected  upon  boiling  with  any  substance  containing  grape 
sugar  or  glucose,  depending  on  the  quantity  of  sugar  present.  Any 
change  from  the  clear  blue  of  the  solution  is  usually  caused  by  sugar. 
Commercial  sugar  is  usually  cane  sugar  or  saccharose,  which  in  a  pure 
state  would  not  reduce  Fehling's  Solution,  but  owing  to  some  admix- 
ture of  other  sugars  gives  the  characteristic  reaction.  Fehling's  Solu- 
tion may  be  bought  of  dealers  and  comes  in  two  parts,  an  alkaline  tar- 
trate solution  and  a  copper  solution,  which  should  be  mixed  in  equal 
quantities  just  before  using. 

7.  Tests  for  proteids:  (a)  Millon's  Reagent,  sold  ready  for  use, 
turns  proteids  brick  red  upon  boiling,  (b)  Biuret  reaction;  cover  mate- 
rial with  caustic  potash  solution  and  add  a  few  drops  of  very  weak  cop- 
per sulphate  solution.  Do  not  heat.  Violet  color  indicates  proteids. 
(c)  Xanthoproteic  test;  cover  material  with  strong  nitric  acid.  Apply 
heat  carefully.  A  yellow  color  follows  if  proteid  is  present,  changing 
to  orange  with  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  The  acid 
should  be  cooled  and  the  ammonia  added  very  slowly,  drop  by  drop. 

These  tests  for  proteids  may  very  well  be  made  upon  the  white  of 
egg  or  crushed  beans  and  should  be  performed  in  test  tubes. 

8.  Tests  for  fats  and  oils,  (a)  Grease  spot  on  paper,  (b)  Burns 
with  smoky  flame,  (c)  A  trace  in  water  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope appears  in  the  form  of  globules. 

9.  Mineral  substances.     Ash  of  plants. 

10.  Evaporation.  Rate  as  governed  by  temperature  and  relative 
humidity.     Attendant  reduction  of  temperature.     Optional. 


11.  Osmosis.  Using  sugar  or  syrup  in  a  container  of  semi-per- 
meable membrane,  in  contact  outwardly  with  water.  Increase  in  the 
volume  of  the  solution  within,  test  for  glucose  in  the  water  outside. 
Parchment  purchased  in  sheets  which  are  quite  pliable  when 
wet,  or  in  bags  or  thimbles,  or  sausage  casings,  obtained  from  the 
butcher,  may  be  used.  Such  membrane  tied  over  the  top  of  a  thistle 
tube  makes  a  good  osmometer.  Emphasize  here  (a)  the  direction  in 
which  the  greater  flow  takes  place,  (b)  the  pressure  resulting,  (c) 
endosmosis  and  exosmosis.  The  application  of  these  principals  appears 
later  in  the  study  of  absorption  by  roots  and  other  organs,  in  turgidity 
of  stems  and  other  tissues,  in  exudation  of  water  and  other  substances, 
etc.,  and  is  very  important. 

II.  THE  FORM  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  SEEDS 

A.  Dicotyledons.  Seeds  containing  an  embryo  having 
two  seed  leaves  or  cotyledons.  Any  seeds  of  this  class  which 
are  of  sufficient  size  and  simplicity  of  structure  to  be  easily 
understood  may  be  used.  The  following  are  recommended : 
beans,  peas,  castor  oil  seeds,  squash.  The  following  points 
should  be  observed : 

1.  External  markings.  Color,  form,  size;  the  hilum  or  scar  left 
by  breaking  of  the  stalk  of  the  seed;  the  micropyle,  a  single  minute 
pore  usually  near  the  hilum;  the  chalaza,  variously  marked  and  situ- 
ated, being  the  point  at  which  the  nutritive  materials  of  the  growing 
seed  are  distributed  to  the  coats  and  the  central  tissues;  the  raphe  or 
vein  leading  to  the  chalaza,  which  is  not  always  evident.  The  function 
of  these  parts  should  be  explained.  Some  attention  should  be  given  to 
a  comparison  of  seeds;  among  those  of  different  species,  showing  in 
what  such  differences  consist  and  leading  to  an  appreciation  of  impor- 
tant distinguishing  marks,  a  subject  which  may  be  extended  indef- 
initely to  include  the  sseds  of  crop  plants  and  weeds;  among  those  of 
the  same  species  comparison  may  further  be  made  showing  the  range 
of  variation. 

2.  Internal  structure:  form,  size,  position,  and  relative  devel- 
opment of  the  cotyledons;  the  position,  quantity,  texture  of  the  endo- 
sperm and  its  relation  to  the  embryo.  These  are  matters  which  enter 
more  or  less  into  the  classification  of  plants  and  which  are  significant 
from  the  standpoint  of  nutrition.  The  hypocotyl,  giving  rise  to  root 
system  and  part  of  the  stem,  is  a  straight  or  curved  conical  organ  and 
deserves  careful  attention.  The  plumule,  which  may  not  be  in  evidence 
or  may  be  conspicuous  (bean),  is  found  upon  the  very  short  stem,  be- 
tween the  cotyledons. 

3.  Relation  of  seeds  to  fruit;  position  and  number  of  seeds,  sig- 
nificance of  shape  and  of  the  seed  and  position  of  micropyle,  cha- 
laza, etc. 

4.  Relation  of  seeds  to  dispersal;  appendages  (cottonwood,  wil- 
low, milkweed,  fireweed,  etc.),  character  of  the  testa,  as  hardness, 
smoothness,  mucilaginous  quality  or  other  features  associated  with 
resistance  to  decay,  dessication,  destruction  by  animals,  etc.,  the  ad- 
vantage of  small  size  in  certain  seeds,  the  relative  numbers  of  seeds 
produced  by  plants  of  different  species  and  the  economic  importance 
of  such  facts  as  in  weeds  and  certain  cultivated  plants,  etc. 

B.  Monocotyledons.  Seeds  containing  an  embryo  having 
one  cotyledon  or  seed  leaf.  Suggested:  corn,  wheat,  oats  and 
other  grains,  seeds  of  yucca,  lilies,  onion,  etc  The  grains  are 
technically  fruits,  hut  functionally  seeds.  Distinctions  between 
fruits  and  seeds  are  better  understood  after  a  study  of  flowers 
and  fruits.    For  consideration  of  these  distinctions  see  IX,  B. 

—5— 


1.  Form  and  external  markings.  In  the  corn  grain  the  scar  of 
the  silk  and  that  of  the  pedicel  or  stalk  of  the  grain  are  readily  recog- 
nized. In  all  cases  the  embryonal  area  on  the  upper  surface  is  plainly 
evident.  The  resistent  character  of  the  surface  layers  of  the  grain 
may  here  be  compared  with  those  of  seeds. 

2.  Internal  structure:  Endosperm  and  embryo,  including  cotyl- 
edon, plumule  and  hypocotyl,  their  position  and  differentiation. 

The  coats  of  the  grain;  the  aleurone  and  starchy  tissue.   Optional. 

Comparison  of  monocotyledonous  embryos  of  corn  and  other 
grasses,  of  onion,  yucca,  etc.,  as  to  the  position  parts,  relation  to  endo- 
sperm, etc.    Optional. 

3.  Relation  of  grain  to  cob  or  ear;  protection  by  husks  or  bracts. 
Comparison  at  different  ages.     Optional. 

C.  Gymnosperms.  Seeds  of  pine.  Seeds  of  some  species 
are  sold  on  the  market  as  nuts. 

1.  Form  and  external  markings  and  color.  The  wing  of  the  seed 
is  conspicuous  in  the  case  of  most  local  species  of  pine,  though  it 
is  easily  detached.  The  function  of  the  wing  may  easily  be  demon- 
strated by  tossing  a  few  seeds  in  the  air;  the  spiral  movement  impart- 
ed retards  the  fall  and  gives  opportunity  for  the  play  of  any  lateral  air 
currents  and  effects  thereby  a  wider  distribution. 

2.  Relation  of  seeds  to  the  cone;  position  of  the  seeds  and  wings 
may  be  seen  in  the  open  cone.  Use  preferably  cones  of  the  western 
yellow  pine.     Compare  with  other  species  where  possible. 

3.  Internal  structure:  endosperm,  quantity  and  texture;  embryo, 
including  hypocotyl  and  cotyledons.  Note  position  of  these  parts  with 
reference  to  position  in  the  cone.  Relation  of  this  position  to  the 
point  of  the  hypocotyl.     Comparison  with  other  seeds  in  this  respect. 

III.     THE  COMPOSITION  OF  SEEDS 

A.  Starch. 

Use  beans,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  etc. 

1.  Microscopic  forms  and  structure  of  the  granules,  relative 
sizes,  etc.  Scrapings  made  with  the  point  of  a  knife  from  the  cotyl- 
eldon  or  the  endosperm  and  mounted  in  a  drop  of  water  are  satisfac- 
tory for  study.  It  is  profitable  to  call  attention  to  the  utility  of  this 
method  of  detecting  the  source  of  certain  food  and  drug  products,  im- 
purities, etc. 

2.  Further  identification  of  the  starch  itself  by  the  iodine  test. 

3.  Distribution  of  starch  in  the  organs  of  the  seed,  and  signifi- 
cance of  the  same  from  the  standpoint  of  nutrition. 

B.  Proteid. 

Use  beans,  castor  beans,  peas  and  other  seeds. 

1.  Color  reactions  for  proteid  upon  small  pieces  of  seeds  in  a 
test  tube. 

2.  Structure  of  the  aleurone  grain  as  found  in  the  endosperm 
of  the  castor-bean.  Thin  sections  mounted  in  glycerine.  See  descrip- 
tions in  texts. 

3.  Distribution  of  proteids  in  seeds;  endosperm,  cotyledons,  or 
both.  Identification  of  the  aleurone  layer  in  endosperm  of  corn  and 
wheat  and  its  significance.     Its  dietary  value  in  whole  wheat  flour. 

C.  Fats. 

Castor  beans,  squash  and  sunflower  seeds. 

1.  Tests  for  the  presence  of  oils  or  fats. 

2.  Distribution  in  the  seeds. 


3.  Association  with  other  food  materials;  equivalent  food  value 
of  fats  and  starches. 

D.     Cellulose. 

Date  seeds  and  unroasted  coffee.  Microscopic  examina- 
tion of  thin  sections. 

1.  Structure  of  reserve  cellulose  in  seeds. 

2.  Color  reaction  for  cellulose.  Iodine  and  sulphuric  acid;  blue 
color. 

3.  Associated  food  materials.     Optional. 

IV.  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  THE  SEED 

Use  beans,  peas,  squash,  castor-bean,  corn,  wheat,  sun- 
flower, onion,  etc.,  grown  in  sand  or  sawdust  in  boxes. 

A.  Behavior  of  the  embryo. 

1.  Breaking  of  the  testa  and  appearance  of  the  radicle  (hypo- 
cotyl).  Study  with  reference  to  uniformity  of  habit,  special  provisions 
for  removing  the  seed  coats,  relation  of  the  form  of  the  seed  (squash) 
to  position  in  germination,  etc. 

2.  Exposure  of  the  cotyledons  and  plumule.  Length  of  time  in- 
volved in  this  process  and  its  relation  to  the  quantity  and  place  of  the 
food  reserve. 

3.  Elongation  of  the  parts;  behavior  of  the  cotyledons  and  plu- 
mule.    How  many  purposes  may  cotyledons  serve? 

B.  Utilization  of  reserve  food. 

1.  Digestion  of  starch.  Enzymes,  their  nature,  location  and  ac- 
tivity. 

2.  Conditions  of  digestive  activity,  as  temperature,  acidity  or 
alkalinity,  presence  of  water,  effect  of  the  presence  of  other  sub- 
stances, etc.     Optional. 

3.  Demonstration  of  starch  digestion  by  use  of  iodine  and  Feh- 
ling's  Solution.  This  should  be  performed  upon  starch  paste  made  by 
stirring  a  little  starch  into  boiling  water.  Allow  to  cool.  Starch 
paste  should  not  reduce  Fehling's  Solution;  it  should  respond  to  the 
iodine  test.  Use  solution  of  commercial  diastase  or  juice  extracted 
from  sprouting  wheat,  and  mix  with  the  paste.  This  should  transform 
the  paste  to  sugar  in  less  than  an  hour  under  favorable  conditions. 
As  sugar  is  present  with  the  diastase  the  mixture  would  reduce  Feh- 
ling's Solution  even  before  digestion  has  begun  to  take  place,  hence 
this  test  is  not  applicable  and  the  effect  of  the  diatase  or  extract  upon 
the  paste  is  evident  only  in  the  disappearance  of  starch  from  the  mix- 
ture, as  when  iodine  fails  to  give  the  blue  reaction.  Use  small  parts 
of  mixture  in  test  tubes  for  each  test  until  concluded. 

4.  Microscopic  examination  of  starch  of  sprouting  wheat;  starch 
granules  corroded  in  characteristic  way  by  digestive  action  of  the 
enzyme. 

5.  Meaning  of  digestion:  the  end  reached,  solubility  and  diffu- 
sibility;  compare  action  of  diastase  and  saliva.  Bring  out  in  this  les- 
son the  identity  of  digestion  in  animals  and  plants. 

6.  Special  digestive  organs:  cotyledon  of  date,  scutellum  (cotyl- 
edon) of  corn  and  other  grasses. 

7.  Digestion  of  proteid  (aleurone),  Enzymes  involved.    Optional. 

8.  Digestion  of  fats,  cellulose,  etc.  Enzymes  involved.  Op- 
tional. 


0.     Conditions  of  germination. 

For  directions  in  the  following  experiments  consult  text- 
books and  manuals.  No  complex  or  expensive  apparatus  re- 
quired. These  are  especially  important  as  bearing  upon  suc- 
cessful operations  in  agriculture. 

1.  Experiment  to  show  need  of  air  (oxygen). 

2.  Experiment  to  show  need  of  water. 

3.  Experiment  to  show  proper  degrees  of  temperature. 

4.  Relation  of  light  to  germination.     Is  light  needed? 

5.  Gases  given  off  in  germination. 

6.  Pressures  exerted  by  growing  organs. 

7.  Persistence  of  life  in  seeds;  habitual  relations  to  winter  tem- 
peratures; relation  to  prevalence  of  species,  and  to  weeding  and 
planting. 

D.  Ecological  Relations.    Optional. 

1.  Relation  to  insects,  birds,  mammals  and  other  forms  of  ani- 
mal life  with  bearing  upon  agriculture  and  forestry. 

2.  Relation  to  grazing  and  the  life  of  range  plants. 

3.  Directive  influences  of  light  and  gravity  in  the  establishment 
of  young  plants. 

E.  Methods  of  seed  testing. 

This  has  an  obvious  practical  bearing  upon  agriculture. 
A  suggested  method  is  to  cover  seeds  with  water  for  a  day,  then 
distribute  in  lots  of  100  on  moist  blotting  paper  in  trays,  each 
group  numbered.  A  table  with  corresponding  numbers  is  pre- 
pared and  on  this  are  recorded  from  day  to  day  the  number  of 
seeds  which  have  germinated.  The  germinated  seeds  are  re- 
moved each  day.  From  these  data  the  rate  of  germination  and 
the  percentage  of  viable  seeds  can  readily  be  computed. 

V.     THE  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  ROOTS 

Roots  of  seedlings  of  beans,  peas,  corn,  wheat,  radish,  tur- 
nip, clover,  etc.,  grown  in  sawdust  or  sand,  or  on  moist  blot- 
ting paper  under  cover. 

A.     Structure  and  function. 

1.  The  form  and  external  characters  of  the  root;  the  root-cap. 
Branching  of  the  root;  primary  and  secondary  roots  and  roots  of  a 
higher  order.     Arrangement  of  lateral  roots.     Direction  of  growth. 

2.  The  root  hairs.  Distribution  of  root  hairs  and  their  micro- 
scopic structure.  Mount  slender  root  entire  or  gently  split  by  teasing 
with  needles.  For  this  purpose  material  may  be  obtained  readily  by 
growing  radish  seedlings  on  blotting  paper,  or  by  starting  roots  from 
the  nodes  of  Wandering  Jew  in  water. 

3.  Demonstrate  the  mechanism  of  absorption  by  means  of  an 
osmometer,  which  may  be  easily  made  by  stretching  a  thin  piece  of 
fresh  sausage  casing  over  the  mouth  of  a  thistle  tube  and  tying  tight- 
ly. Introduce  through  the  stem  of  the  tube  a  teaspoonful  of  granu- 
lated sugar  and  immerse  the  bulb  in  water.  An  inflow  of  water  will 
follow.  The  tube  standing  vertically  may  be  heightened  as  far  as  de- 
sired by  means  of  glass  tubing  and  rubber  tubing  connections. 

4.  Study  of  the  transverse  section  of  the  root;  epidermis,  cor- 
tex and  central  cylinder.     For  this  purpose  thin,  transverse,  freehand 


sections  of  pea  or  bean  radicle  are  satisfactory.  Place  a  piece  of  root, 
from  as  near  the  point  as  may  be  convenient,  between  pieces  of  elder 
pith  for  cutting.  Cut  all  as  one  piece  and  remove  the  desired  sec- 
tions.    Mount  in  water. 

B.  Specialized  Roots.    Optional. 

1.  Storage  roots;  carrot,  turnip,  beet,  sweet  potato.  Nature  of 
the  foods  stored  and  position.  Tests  on  gross  sections  by  iodine  and 
other  reagents  for  color  reactions. 

2.  Parasitic  roots  or  suckers  found  penetrating  the  tissues  of 
other  plants.  Two  cases  in  this  category  are  of  wide  distribution  in 
Montana;  one  the  small  Comandra,  described  in  all  the  manuals, 
which  is  parasitic  by  its  roots  upon  the  roots  of  most  plants  in  its  vi- 
cinity; the  other  a  very  small  mistletoe  which  attacks  the  branches  of 
various  conifers  and  causes  brooming  of  the  branch  or  of  the  whole 
tree  top. 

3.  Clinging  roots  arising  from  the  stems  of  English  Ivy. 

4.  Air  roots  of  certain  hot-house  orchids  which  serve  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  air. 

C.  Experimental  reactions  of  roots.     Optional. 

1.  Response  to  gravity.  Roots  placed  in  different  positions; 
direction  of  growth  noted.  Different  degrees  of  reaction  in  primary 
and  secondary  roots. 

2.  Response  to  light.  Has  light  or  darkness  any  influence  upon 
the  direction  of  the  growth  of  the  root?  Arrange  for  unilateral  illu- 
mination. 

3.  Response  to  moisture.  Does  the  differential  distribution  of 
moisture  influence  the  direction  of  growth  or  the  amplification  of  the 
root  system?  Test  by  growing  seedlings  in  a  box  filled  with  fine  soil 
in  which  the  distribution  of  moisture  is  properly  controlled. 

4.  Response  to  air.  Modify  the  amount  or  the  distribution  of 
oxygen  about  the  roots  of  growing  plants  and  observe  the  results.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  increasing  the  porosity  of  the  soil,  by  flood- 
ing or  by  the  introduction  of  inert  gases  to  exclude  air  or  by  other 
means,  and  compare  with  plants  not  so  treated. 

VI.     STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  STEMS 

A.  Surface  characteristics. 

1.  Nodes  and  internodes.  Herbaceous  or  hardwood  stems  pre- 
ferred. 

2.  Leaf  scars  and  dormant  buds.  Identification  of  twigs  by  leaf 
scars.     Compare  twigs  of  different  hardwoods. 

3.  Scars  of  bud  scales,  marking  limits  of  annual  growth.  Com- 
pare with  leaf  scars  as  to  arrangement. 

4.  Lenticels.  Conspicuous  on  birch,  cherry,  or  elder.  Compare 
as  to  size  and  direction  of  greater  diameter. 

5.  Scars  left  by  falling  of  branches,  (cotton wood)  and  of  flower 
clusters,  (horsechestnut,  lilac). 

6.  Ridges,  grooves,  scales,  etc.,  results  of  growth.  Characteristic 
markings  in  bark  of  trees  of  different  species. 

B.  Internal  structure. 

Transverse  and  Longitudinal  sections  of  corn,  sunflower, 
squash,  or  other  herbaceous  plant.  Of  woody  stems,  apple,  cot- 
tOnwood,  maple,  pine,  etc. 

—9— 


1.  In  herbaceous  stems  vascular,  mechanical  and  fundamental 
tissue.  Monocotyledonous  stem;  distinctions  of  rind,  pith,  vascular 
bundles.  Dicotyledons;  pith,  vascular  bundles  and  cortex  and  medul- 
lary rays  (herbaceous);  pith,  rays,  woody  cylinder,  cambium,  phloem 
cortex,  bark,   (woody  stems).  ' 

2.  Parts  of  the  vascular  bundle;   xylem,  phloem,  cambium. 

3.  Functions  of  the  tissues  above  mentioned. 

4.  Manner  of  secondary  growth.  Compare  gross  sections  of  stems 
of  different  ages.  Set  cut  stems  of  any  leafy  plant  in  weak  solution  of 
eosm  in  water.  Cut  sections  of  stem  at  different  heights  after  a 
day  or  two. 

5.  Experiment  to  demonstrate  path  of  sap.  Set  cut  stems  of 
any  leafy  plant  in  weak  solution  of  eosin  in  water.  Cut  sections  of 
stem  at  different  heights  after  a  day  or  two. 

C.  Experimental  reactions  of  stems. 

1.  Effect  of  continued  darkness.  Grow  seedlings  of  same  kinds 
m  similar  pots,  exclude  light  from  one  lot  for  several  days  and  com- 
pare as  to  structure,  color,  vigor,  leaves,  etc. 

2.  Response  to  light.  Direction  of  growth  demonstrated  by  uni- 
lateral illumination. 

3.  Response  to  gravity.  Place  stems  in  horizontal  position  and 
observe  reaction.     Eliminate  influence  of  light. 

D.  Specialized  types  of  stems. 

1.  Food  storage;    potato. 

2.  Water  storage;  cactus. 

3.  Propagation;    strawberry  stolons  and  those  of  some  grasses. 

4.  Protection;  thorns  of  hawthorn. 

E.  Buds. 

Pine,  maple,  lilac,  poplar,  alder,  etc. 

1.  External  markings;  gum  or  varnish,  arrangement  of  scales. 

2.  Internal  structure;   arrangement  and  identity  of  organs. 

3.  Distribution  of  buds  on  the  branch  and  their  relative  size.  Cor- 
relation of  size  and  usual  extent  of  annual  growth.  Correlation  of  po- 
sition and  branching  habit. 

4.  Expansion  of  the  bud  and  manner  and  rate  of  unfolding  of 
its  members. 

VII.     THE  FORMS,  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTIONS 
OF  LEAVES 

A.     The  parts  of  leaves. 

Leaves  from  ten  or  a  dozen  different  plants :  pine,  poplar, 
grass,  geranium,  mullein,  maple,  apple,  fern,  etc. 

1.  Organs  of  the  leaf;   petiole,  blade,  veins. 

2.  Description  of  leaves;  forms,  segmentation,  base,  apex,  sur- 
face, position,  arrangement,  etc.  The  terminology  of  leaves  is  a  large 
part  of  the  descriptive  literature  of  plants,  and  is  important  mainly  in 
the  work  of  classification.     Optional. 

3.  Tissues;  epidermis,  stomata,  mesophyll;  functions  of  the 
parts. 

4.  Appendages;    stipules,  stipels,  glands,  etc. 

—10 


B.     Functions  of  leaves. 

This  subject  is  important.  Many  experiments  are  described 
in  texts  and  manuals  and  teachers  are  referred  to  these.  The 
work  under  this  head  should  cover  the  following  topics,  and 
may  be  in  the  nature  of  demonstrations  if  the  equipment  of  the 
laboratory  is  inadequate  for  individual  student  effort. 

1.  Transpiration.  (a)  The  discharge  of  water  vapor 
from  the  leaves  and  other  aerial  parts,  may  be  shown  by  weighing 
from  time  to  time.  A  potted  Geranium  may  be  used  here,  the  pot 
entirely  covered  with  rubber  or  other  means  to  prevent  the  loss  of 
water  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  pot.  (b)  Con- 
densation of  vapor  on  the  inside  of  a  glass  vessel  covering  fresh 
shoots. 

2.  Photosynthesis,  (a)  Covering  and  exposing  alternate  areas 
of  a  leaf  exposed  to  sunlight.  (Use  tinfoil).  Bleached  by  alcohol  and 
tested  by  iodine,  (b)  Absence  of  starch  from  plants  grown  in  dark- 
ness, (c)  Discharge  of  oxygen  from  green  organs  in  presence  of  sun- 
light. Collected  by  inverted  funnel  and  test  tube  under  water.  And 
other  experiments. 

3.  Respiration.  Absorption  of  oxygen  discharge  of  carbon  diox- 
ide, (a)  Use  of  candle  flame.  Leaves  kept  in  a  covered  jar  in  the 
dark  absorb  oxygen  and  discharge  carbon  dioxide;  a  lighted  candle 
lowered  into  the  jar  is  quickly  extinguished,  (b)  Absorption  of  car- 
bon dioxide  by  caustic  potash. 

4.  Effect  of  light  on  position  of  leaves.  Movements.  Unilateral 
illumination  of  leafy  plants.  Maximum  exposure  of  leaf  surface  as 
seen  in  many  plants  in  nature.  Observe  from  above  the  leaves  on  a 
branch  of  maple  and  other  trees. 

C.     Utilities  of  leaves.    Optional. 

1.  Foods:  cabbage,  lettuce,  celery,  tea,  sage,  etc. 

2.  Medicines;   mints,  tansy,  boneset,  etc. 

3.  Fibers;   sisal,  yucca,  henequen,  etc. 

VIII.     FLOWERS 

A.  Structure. 

Genera]  structure;  functions  of  all  parts.  Structure 
of  the  ovule;  relation  to  the  ovary  in  position  and  numbers. 
Place  of  pollen  production  ;  growth  of  the  pollen  lube  from  the 
stigma  to  the  ovule;  fertilization. 

B.  Pollination. 

Various  modes  of  pollen  transfer;  special  floral  struc- 
tures as  related  to  insect  visitation;  dioecious,  diclinous  and 
dichogamous  flowers. 

C.  Flower  Clusters. 

Types  of  inflorescence;  simple  types  <>!'  raceme,  spike, 
umbel,  panicle,  etc.     Optional. 

D.  Classification. 

Study  of  local  flowering  plants;  different  types  of 
flowers  for  comparative  study  as  time  will  permit;  a  good  deal 
of  time  may  profitably  be  spent  here.  Material  suggested  for 
study  may  include  many  plants  of  the  house  and  garden,  as 
primrose,  pansy,  pea,    cherry,    apple,    candytuft,    wall-flower, 

—11— 


hollyhock,  petunia,  hyacinth,  tulip,  and  many  others.  Of  the 
wild  flowers  widely  distributed  over  the  state  may  be  men- 
tioned the  buttercup,  vetch,  lupine,  sunflower,  aster,  dandelion, 
cinquefoil,  rose,  chokecherry,  hawthorn,  maple  or  box  elder, 
onion,  yellow  bell,  blue  bell,  dogtooth  violet,  in  the  plains  coun- 
try yuccas,  in  the  wooded  parts  syringa,  dogwood,  ninebark, 
snowberry,  etc.  For  work  during  the  winter  months  potted 
plants  may  be  used  if  convenient,  or  quantities  of  flowers  may 
be  preserved  in  glass  fruit  jars  or  bottles  by  covering  with  a 
solution  of  3  or  4%  formaldehyde.  Formaldehyde  is  sold  at 
all  drug  stores  in  40%  solutions,  which  may  be  diluted  with  10 
or  15  volumes  of  water  and  be  ready  for  use.  Or  flowers  may 
be  pressed  and  dried,  and  when  soaked  in  water  several  hours 
before  using  will  be  almost  as  good  as  fresh. 

IX.     FRUITS 

A.  Formation. 

Development  of  the  fruit  from  the  pistil  of  the  flower. 

B.  Distinctions. 

Distinctions  between  seeds  and  fruits;  thus  the  loose 
application  of  the  term  "seed"  to  the  fruits  of  corn,  and  other 
grains,  sunflower,  dandelion,  carrot,  clematis,  etc.,  should  be 
understood. 

C.  Types. 

Examples  of  different  kinds  of  fruits ;  external  and  inter- 
nal structure. 

D.  Dispersal. 

Adaptations  for  dispersal.  Suggested  material  for  the 
study  of  fruits:  apple,  cucumber,  grape,  gooseberry,  cherry, 
plum,  peanut,  bean,  poppy,  radish,  pepper,  tomato,  milkweed, 
vetch,  lupine,  yucca,  maple  or  box  elder,  cottonwood,  rose,  haw- 
thorn, evening  primrose,  thistle,  burdock,  sunflower,  dandelion, 
pine,  fir,  juniper,  etc. 

X.     ALGAE 

A.  Structure. 

Vegetative  structure ;  forms  of  the  cells,  arrangement  of 
cells,  variation  in  form  and  size. 

B.  Biology. 

Physiological  activity ;"  habit  of  growth  and  local  dis- 
tribution; movements,  if  any;  conditions  of  the  habitat,  mois- 
ture, light,  etc. 

C.  Reproduction. 

Reproduction;  plants  or  colonies  of  plants  of  different 
sizes;  where  present  the  form  and  structure  of  the  special 
organs  of  reproduction ;  zoospores,  in  the  forms  which  produce 
them. 

—12— 


D.     Uses. 

Economic  importance;  in  some  forms. 
Suggested  subjects  for  study  are : 

Oscillatoria.  Found  in  slimy,  dark  bluish  green  layer  on  wet  soil 
or  in  quiet  pools,  or  on  the  benches  and  pots  in  green  houses;  has 
musty  odor.  May  be  kept  in  aquaria  in  the  school  room  from  year  to 
year.  Very  common  and  of  some  economic  importance  in  water  sup- 
plies.    Shows  peculiar  movements.     Optional. 

Nostoc.  Found  in  small,  bluish  green,  translucent  lumps  from 
the  size  of  a  pinhead  to  a  hazelnut,  on  damp  soil  or  objects  submerged 
in  shallow  water.     Bead-like  arrangement  of  cells.     Optional. 

Ulothrix.  Short,  bright  green,  delicate  filaments  clinging  to  stones 
in  running  water;  cells  short  cylindrical  arranged  end  to  end.  Soon 
after  being  brought  into  the  room  (in  few  hours)  the  contents  of  the 
cells  may  be  seen  to  break  up  into  zoospores  which  swim  about,  ob- 
servable under  the  microscope.     Optional. 

Spirogyra.  Forms  floating  masses  or  dark  green  in  quiet, 
but  not  stagnant,  pools,  often  in  the  quiet  water  along  some  stream. 
Feels  slippery  to  the  touch.  Floats  free  and  is  unattached.  Shows 
beautiful  spiral  bands  of  green  in  each  cell  under  the  lens.  Repro- 
duces by  forming  oval  spores  through  bridge-like  connections  between 
cells  of  different  filaments.  Not  commonly  found,  however,  in  this  con- 
dition. 

Vaucheria.  Grows  in  coarse,  felt-like  layer  on  soil  that  is  damp 
most  of  the  time;  common  in  greenhouses.  Under  the  microscope  the 
filaments  are  seen  to  be  devoid  of  transverse  walls,  and  to  branch 
irregularly.  Oogonia  and  antheridia  are  usually  lateral  organs  on  the 
filaments,  and  are  the  female  and  male  organs  of  reproduction  re- 
spectively.   Illustrated  in  most  texts. 

Most  of  these  algae  in  preserved  condition  can  be  obtained  from 
the  dealers  in  laboratory  material,  or  they  may  be  collected  during  the 
growing  season  and  preserved  in  formaline.  Ulothrix  and  Spirogyra  do 
not  thrive  in  aquaria  unless  the  water  is  kept  running. 

XI.     FUNGI 

A.  Forms. 

Study  of  the  plants  in  vegetative  and  reproductive  parts; 
structure  and  form,  color,  etc 

B.  Biology. 

Manner  of  growth  and  development  ;  vegetative  in- 
crease and  spore  formation;  nutrition  of  oon-green  plants;  di- 
gestion of  starch  and. other  organic  substances.  The  inva- 
sion of  wood  and  other  tissues  by  the  hypae  of  fungi,  and 
the  changes  winch  ensure  in  the  tissue  invaded.  Economic  im- 
portance of  wood-rotting  fungi.  Parasitism:  nature  of  the  de- 
pendence of  the  parasite  and  the  effects  of  parasitism  on  the 
host.  Experiments  to  determine  favorable  conditions  for  the 
growl  h  of  fungi. 

C.  Economics. 

Economic  importance  of  the  fungi;  loss  of  structural 
timbers,  ties,  poles,  etc.,  loss  from  the  diseases  of  plants  in 
orchard,  field  and  forest,  importance  of  yeast  in  the  manufac- 

—13— 


tures,  importance  of  bacteria  in  manufactures,  in  the  economy 
of  nature,  in  human  health  and  disease. 

Suggested  subjects  for  study  are : 

Yeast.  Compressed  yeast;  a  small  lump  added  to  a  flask  or 
glass  containing  a  weak  sugar  solution  and  the  vessel  set  in  a  warm 
place  for  several  hours  to  start  growth.  Microscopic  examination  for 
budding  cells.     Or  better,  a  solution  made  as  follows: 

Glucose  75  grams 

Ammonium  tartrate  5  grams 

Potassium-di-hydrogen   phosphate 1  gram 

Calcium  chloride 5  gram 

Magnesium    sulphate    5  gram 

Water  500  cc 

Bread  Mould.  Easily  grown  by  keeping  stale  bread  moist 
(under  an  inverted  dish)  and  in  a  warm  place.  Use  before  the  small 
globular  black  heads  have  appeared  in  great  numbers.  Furnishes  good 
material  for  the  study  of  the  growth  and  structure  of  the  hyphae. 

Mildew.  Found  on  leaves  of  snowberry,  clover,  or  lilac.  Ap- 
pears as  thin  film  of  grayish  cast  with  minute  black  spheres  sprinkled 
through  it.  A  good  representative  of  the  sac  fungi;  show  relation  of 
the  fruits  to  the  mycelium.     Optional. 

Rust.  The  several  phases  of  diffent  rusts  similar  in  struc- 
ture may  be  found  on  leaves  of  grasses,  hawthorns,  service  berry,  rose, 
etc.  Great  importance  economically.  Good  for  study  of  relation  of 
parasite  and  host.    Optional. 

Mushroom,  or  shelf  fungus,  of  any  convenient  form.  Rela- 
tion to  the  material  on  which  it  grows,  and  its  effect  thereon.    Optional 

Lichen.  Combination  of  algae  and  fungi.  Good  material  to 
illustrate  symbiotic  relations  of  organisms.  Found  on  soil  in  woods, 
or  on  rocks  or  tree  trunks  and  branches  in  sheltered  places,  where 
moist.     Manner  of  reproduction.     Optional. 

XII.     MOSSES 

A.  General  appearance  and  parts. 

B.  Differentiation  of  sexual  and  asexual  generations. 

C.  Biology. 

Habits  of  growth,  habitat,  and  distribution.  Suggested 
material:  Any  moss  that  shows  clear  differentiation  of 
parts  and  large  enough  to  be  studied  without  difficulty. 
Mnium,  Funaria,  Polytrichum  and  Dicranum  are  widely  dis- 
tributed genera.    Any  one  of  the  following  : 

Mnium  recognized  by  its  broad,  membranous  leaves  and  oblong 
capsule.     Commonly  found  in  moister  woods. 

Funaria  grows  on  the  soil  in  well  lighted  places,  often  where  fire 
has  been,  and  is  recognized  by  a  small  tuft  of  leaves  at  the  base  of  the 
slender,  twisted  seta,  and  by  its  one-sided,  balloon-shaped  capsule. 

Polytrichum  occurs  in  a  variety  of  places,  under  some  shade  as 
in  dry  woods  or  on  north  slopes.  Recognized  by  its  narrow,  pointed 
leaves,  its  dark  color,  and  the  hairy  cap  which  covers  the  oblong,  angu- 
lar capsule. 

Dicranum  grows  in  woods,  forming  thick  carpets  on  soil,  rocks 
or  logs.  Bright  green,  with  narrow  leaves  usually  curved  to  one  side, 
and  the  curved  capsule  with  slender  calyptra. 

—14— 


XIII.     FERNS 

The  same  general  points  of  structure  and  biology  as  in  the 
mosses.  Suggested  material :  Several  potted  ferns  may  be 
used;  one  type  is  sufficient  for  life  history,  with  some  compa- 
risons in  the  different  parts  with  other  types  as  far  as  practi- 
cable. Boston  fern,  maiden  hair,  polypody  or  Pteris,  any  of 
which  may  usually  be  obtained  from  a  florist.  Native  ferns  of 
various  types  may  be  used.  Ferns  may  be  pressed  and  dried, 
and  when  mounted  on  paper  will  serve  for  general  examina- 
tion and  drawings.  Leaves  beginning  to  fruit  may  be  kept  in 
formaline  for  detailed  study  of  sporangia.  Similarly  stems  and 
other  parts  may  be  kept  for  sectioning. 

LITERATURE 

The  following  books  will  be  found  useful  as  guides  in  lab- 
oratory observation  and  experiment,  and  for  reading.  Those 
marked  with  an  asterisk  are  especially  recommended. 

ON  TEACHING  AND  METHODS 

*  Lloyd  and  Bigelow,  The  Teaching  of  Biology  in  the  Secondary 
School.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  $1.50. 

Ganong,  The  Teaching  Botanist,  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 

LABORATORY  MANUALS 
♦Ganong,  Plant  Physiology,  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  $2.00. 
Osterhout,  Experiments  with  Plants,  Macmillan  Co.,  $1.25. 
Setchel,  Laboratory  Practice  for  Beginners  in  Botany,  Macmillan 
Co.,  90  cents. 

Caldwell,  Plant  Morphology,  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  $1.00. 
♦Spalding,  Introduction  to  Botany,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  80  cents. 

BOOKS  ON  STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY 

♦Stevens,  Plant  Anatomy,  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  $2.00. 

♦Green,  Vegetable  Physiology,  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  $3.00. 

♦Coulter,  Plant  Structures,  U.  Appleton  &  Co.,  $1.20. 

♦Coulter,  Plant  Relations,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  $1.10. 

Coulter,  Barnes  and  Cowles,  Text  Book  of  Botany,  2  vols.,  Amer- 
ican Book  Co.,  $4.75. 

♦Curtis,  Nature  and  Development  of  Plants,  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
$2.50. 

Strasburger  and  others,  A  Text  Book  of  Botany,  Macmillan  Co. 
$5.00. 

♦Gray,  Lessons  in  Botany,  American  Book  Co.,  $1.00. 

BOOKS  ON   CLASSIFICATION 

♦Nelson,  Spring  Flora  of  the  Intermountain  States,  Ginn  &  Co.,  75 
cents. 

♦Nelson,  New  Manual  of  Rocky  Mountain  Botany,  American  Book 
Co.,  $2.50. 

♦Clements  and  Clements,  Rocky  Mountain  Flowers,  Illustrated. 
II.   W.   Wilson  Co.,  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  $3.00. 

—15— 


Underwood,  Our  Native  Ferns,  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  $1.00. 

Grout,  Moses  with  a  Hand  Lens,  A.  J.  Grout,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y„  $1.75. 

Atkinson,  Mushrooms,  Edible  and  Poisonous,  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
$3.00. 

Underwood,  Moulds,  Mildews  and  Mushrooms,  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
$1.50. 

Schneider,  A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Lichens,  Caldwell,  $2.50. 

FIRMS    DEALING    IN    APPARATUS,   CHARTS,    SUPPLIES,    ETC. 

Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Spencer  Lens  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Kny-Scheerer  Co.,  New  York  City. 

FIRMS  DEALING   IN   MATERIAL   FOR  STUDY 

Marine  Biological  Laboratory,  Woods  Holl,  Mass. 

St.  Louis  Biological  Laboratory,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Puget  Sound  Marine  Station,  University  of  Washington,  Seattle. 


■16— 


3  0112  105733411 


3UREAU   OF   PRINTING 
MISSOULA 


